A Critical Review of AMR Risks Arising as a Consequence of Using Biocides and Certain Metals in Food Animal Production.

The focus of this review was to assess what evidence exists on whether, and to what extent, the use of biocides (disinfectants and sanitizers) and certain metals (used in feed and other uses) in animal production (both land and aquatic) leads to the development and spread of AMR within the food chain. A comprehensive literature search identified 3434 publications, which after screening were reduced to 154 relevant publications from which some data were extracted to address the focus of the review. The review has shown that there is some evidence that biocides and metals used in food animal production may have an impact on the development of AMR. There is clear evidence that metals used in food animal production will persist, accumulate, and may impact on the development of AMR in primary animal and food production environments for many years. There is less evidence on the persistence and impact of biocides. There is also particularly little, if any, data on the impact of biocides/metal use in aquaculture on AMR. Although it is recognized that AMR from food animal production is a risk to human health there is not sufficient evidence to undertake an assessment of the impact of biocide or metal use on this risk and further focused in-field studies are needed provide the evidence required.

Food safety incidents in the red meat industry: A review of foodborne disease outbreaks linked to the consumption of red meat and its products, 1991 to 2021.

Red meat is a significant source of human nutrition, and the red meat industry contributes to the economy of nations. Nonetheless, there is a widespread global concern about public health issues posed by severe food safety incidents within the red meat industry. Most of these incidents are associated with foodborne disease outbreaks that impact individual consumers, food businesses and society. This study adopts a systematic search and review approach to identify three decades of published investigation reports of global foodborne disease outbreaks linked with the consumption of red meat and products made from them. The review aims to evaluate the critical features of these outbreak incidents to get insight into their contributing factors and root causes. In particular, this review discusses the transmission setting (origin of pathogenic agents), the food vehicles mostly incriminated, the causative pathogens (bacteria, viruses, and parasites) causing the most illnesses, and the most commonly reported contributing factors to the outbreaks. This information can help researchers and food business operators (FBOs) inform future risk assessment studies and support risk management activities in developing risk-mitigating strategies for the industry. Findings from this study suggest that implementing food safety management strategies which include adequate control measures at all stages of the food chain, from farm to fork, is imperative in preventing outbreak incidents. Of equal importance is the need for enhanced and sustained public education about the risk of foodborne illnesses associated with meat and its products whilst discouraging the consumption of raw meat products, especially by high-risk groups.

Age, an Important Sociodemographic Determinant of Factors Influencing Consumers' Food Choices and Purchasing Habits: An English University Setting.

The purchasing behaviors of university staff (n = 188) and their use of nutrition labels in making food choices were investigated by an online survey. The age of the participants significantly impacted their purchasing behaviors. This effect was not observed with other sociodemographic characteristics studied (level of education, gender, employment status and ethnicity). The impact of age on the extrinsic factors affecting food choice (personal preference, previous knowledge, convenience, religion/beliefs) and intrinsic factors (quantity, country of origin, method of preparation/serving, fat, salt, protein and added sugar contents) were further explored. The use of nutrition labels among different age groups when buying for the first time was significant for breakfast cereals and fruit juices.

Assessing the Impact of Heat Treatment of Food on Antimicrobial Resistance Genes and Their Potential Uptake by Other Bacteria-A Critical Review.

The dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) is a global health concern. This study identifies and critically reviews the published evidence on whether cooking (heating) food to eliminate bacterial contamination induces sufficient damage to the functionality of ARGs. Overall, the review found that there is evidence in the literature that Antimicrobial Resistant (AMR) bacteria are no more heat resistant than non-AMR bacteria. Consequently, recommended heat treatments sufficient to kill non-AMR bacteria in food (70 °C for at least 2 min, or equivalent) should be equally effective in killing AMR bacteria. The literature shows there are several mechanisms through which functional genes from AMR bacteria could theoretically persist in heat-treated food and be transferred to other bacteria. The literature search found sparce published evidence on whether ARGs may actually persist in food after effective heat treatments, and whether functional genes can be transferred to other bacteria. However, three publications have demonstrated that functional ARGs in plasmids may be capable of persisting in foods after effective heat treatments. Given the global impact of AMR, there is clearly a need for further practical research on this topic to provide sufficient evidence to fully assess whether there is a risk to human health from the persistence of functional ARGs in heat-treated and cooked foods.

Survival of Salmonella Enteritidis Phage Type 30 on Brazil Nut Kernels and Pumpkin Seeds Stored at 8, 23, and 37°C.

ABSTRACT: Experiments were performed to assess the survival of Salmonella on whole Brazil nut kernels and pumpkin seeds stored at 8, 23, and 37°C. Brazil nut kernels and pumpkin seeds were inoculated with bacterial inoculum containing 10.4 log CFU/mL Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 30 and aseptically dried at room temperature for 24 h. After the drying step, levels of Salmonella recovered from Brazil nut kernels and pumpkin seeds were 8.67 ± 0.01 and 9.27 ± 0.03 log CFU/g, respectively. The survival of Salmonella and change in water activity was assessed over 413 days. Although Salmonella survived throughout the storage period, significant differences were recorded between the storage temperatures. Results showed that the survival of Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 30 was more enhanced at 8°C compared with storage at 23 and 37°C. Comparing the survival of Salmonella on the two products at different storage temperatures, there was no significant difference between the means of Salmonella counts for the two products. Results show that Salmonella survived longer on pumpkin seeds stored at 8°C (P = 0.53, compared with Brazil nut kernels), and at 23 and 37°C, Salmonella survived longer on Brazil nut kernels (P = 0.12, compared with pumpkin seeds). The highest and lowest survival of Salmonella was observed on pumpkin seeds with decay rates of -0.003 ± 0.001 and -0.015 ± 0.001 log CFU/g/day for pumpkin seeds stored at 8 and 37°C, respectively. The water activity values recorded on days 2 and 413 for Brazil nut kernels stored at 8, 23, and 37°C were 0.424 and 0.434, 0.383 and 0.385, and 0.372 and 0.256, respectively. For pumpkin seeds stored at 8, 23, and 37°C, water activity values recorded on days 2 and 413 were 0.754 and 0.412, 0.627 and 0.350, and 0.787 and 0.205, respectively. The data obtained in this study provide useful insight on the influence of temperature on the survival of Salmonella on the surface of Brazil nut kernels and pumpkin seeds.

Exploring the Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Eating and Purchasing Behaviours of People Living in England.

Consumers' eating habits have changed significantly due to the anxiety and boredom from the reported cases and deaths of COVID-19, the change in work patterns, controlled food shopping, and the inability to meet loved ones during the lockdown. The magnitude of these changes in the eating behaviours and purchasing habits of consumers varies across different groups of people. This study provides empirical evidence of the effects of COVID-19 on the eating and purchasing behaviours of people living in England, which was assessed based on sociodemographic variables. A total of 911 participants were recruited by a market research company, while only 792 useable responses were included in this study. The participants, aged between 18 and 91 years, completed an online questionnaire, and the data were analysed using ordinal regression. Data were collected between October and December 2020. Male participants constituted 34.60%, females 63.89%, and others (other gender and those who prefer not to declare their gender) were 0.63%. The majority of participants' ages fell into the ranges of 23-38 and 39-54. Participants aged 23 to 38 years had the greatest effect of COVID-19 on their purchasing decision of healthier foods, while participants in the age groups 55-73 and 74-91 were least affected. The amount of foods purchased during the pandemic decreased with increasing age. The amount of foods purchased by students, people in employment, and people from minority ethnic groups were greatly affected by the pandemic. All participants who stated that taking food supplements is not important during the pandemic were from the White ethnic group. The effects of the pandemic on purchasing healthier foods were greater in younger generations and participants in full- or part-time employment than participants who were retired and who were aged above 55. The participants with higher educational qualifications and those from minority ethnic groups were also more affected by the pandemic. We suggest further studies to monitor any changes in the effects of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic on the eating and purchasing behaviours of consumers.

Prospects for Biocontrol of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Contamination in Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulus)-A Year-Long Study.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is an environmental organism normally found in subtropical estuarine environments which can cause seafood-related human infections. Clinical disease is associated with diagnostic presence of tdh and/or trh virulence genes and identification of these genes in our preliminary isolates from retail shellfish prompted a year-long surveillance of isolates from a temperate estuary in the north of England. The microbial and environmental analysis of 117 samples of mussels, seawater or sediment showed the presence of V. parahaemolyticus from mussels (100%) at all time-points throughout the year including the colder months although they were only recovered from 94.9% of seawater and 92.3% of sediment samples. Throughout the surveillance, 96 isolates were subjected to specific PCR for virulence genes and none tested positive for either. The common understanding that consuming poorly cooked mussels only represents a risk of infection during summer vacations therefore is challenged. Further investigations with V. parahaemolyticus using RAPD-PCR cluster analysis showed a genetically diverse population. There was no distinct clustering for "environmental" or "clinical" reference strains although a wide variability and heterogeneity agreed with other reports. Continued surveillance of isolates to allay public health risks are justified since geographical distribution and composition of V. parahaemolyticus varies with Future Ocean warming and the potential of environmental strains to acquire virulence genes from pathogenic isolates. The prospects for intervention by phage-mediated biocontrol to reduce or eradicate V. parahaemolyticus in mussels was also investigated. Bacteriophages isolated from enriched samples collected from the river Humber were assessed for their ability to inhibit the growth of V. parahaemolyticus strains in-vitro and in-vivo (with live mussels). V. parahaemolyticus were significantly reduced in-vitro, by an average of 1 log-2 log units and in-vivo, significant reduction of the organisms in mussels occurred in three replicate experimental tank set ups with a "phage cocktail" containing 12 different phages. Our perspective biocontrol study suggests that a cocktail of specific phages targeted against strains of V. parahaemolyticus provides good evidence in an experimental setting of the valuable potential of phage as a decontamination agent in natural or industrial mussel processing (343w).

The Use and Performance of Household Refrigerators: A Review.

The domestic refrigerator is now a common household device with very few households in the developed world not possessing 1, or more, for the storage of chilled foods. Domestic storage is the last, and in many respects the most important, link in the food chill chain. Inadequate domestic refrigeration or cooling is frequently cited as a factor in incidents of food poisoning. The authors reviewed the temperature performance of refrigerators in 2008. This new review builds on that review, covering studies that have been published since (and those that were unfortunately missed in the first review), and also seeks to put this important stage of the food cold chain in its context. It is clear from the published data that many refrigerators throughout the world are running at higher than recommended temperatures. It is also clear that, despite improvements in energy use, the temperature performance and use of refrigerators have not changed significantly in the last 40 or so years. Many householders still remain unaware of the recommended refrigeration temperature range, how to ensure that the correct refrigeration temperature range is achieved, the importance of monitoring that it is being maintained, and the potential hazards of temperature abuse.